Challenges to Establish Effective Public-Private Partnerships to Address Malnutrition in All Its Forms

Document Type : Original Article

Authors

1 The Nitze School of Advanced International Studies, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, USA

2 The Bloomberg School of Public Health, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, USA

3 The Berman Institute of Bioethics, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, USA

4 Independent Consultant, Singapore, Singapore

5 Independent Consultant, New Delhi, India

Abstract

Background
Every country is affected by some form of malnutrition. Some governments and nutrition experts look to public-private partnerships (PPPs) to address the burden of malnutrition. However, nutrition-related PPPs face opposition, are difficult to form, and there is limited evidence of their effectiveness.
 
Methods
We conducted a literature review and 30 semi-structured interviews with individuals involved in or researching nutrition-related PPPs to identify the factors that shape their creation and effectiveness in food systems.
 
Results
Several factors make it difficult to establish nutrition-related PPPs in food systems: a lack of understanding of the causal pathways behind many nutrition problems; a weak architecture for the global governance of nutrition; power imbalances between public and private sector nutrition actors; and disagreements in the nutrition community on the advisability of engaging the private sector. These complexities in turn make it difficult for PPPs to be effective once established due to goal ambiguity and misalignment, resource imbalances, and weak accountability.
 
Conclusion
If effective nutrition-related PPPs are to be established, private sector conflicts of interest must be addressed, trust deficits between private and public sector actors must be surmounted, and evidence must be assessed as to whether PPPs can achieve more for public health nutrition than private and public sector actors working separately.

Keywords

References

  1. Swinburn BA, Kraak VI, Allender S, et al. The global syndemic of obesity, undernutrition, and climate change: the Lancet Commission report. Lancet. 2019;393(10173):791-846. doi:10.1016/s0140-6736(18)32822-8
  2. Fanzo J, Hawkes C, Udomkesmalee E, et al. 2018 Global Nutrition Report: Shining a Light to Spur Action on Nutrition. Bristol, UK: Development Initiatives; 2018.
  3. Temple NJ. A comparison of strategies to improve population diets: government policy versus education and advice. J Nutr Metab. 2020;2020:5932516. doi:10.1155/2020/5932516
  4. Haddad L, Hawkes C, Waage J, et al. Food Systems and Diets: Facing the Challenges of the 21st Century. Global Panel on Agriculture and Food Systems for Nutrition; 2016.
  5. Masters WA, Rosettie K, Kranz S, et al. Priority interventions to improve maternal and child diets in Sub-Saharan Africa and South Asia. Matern Child Nutr. 2018;14(2):e12526. doi:10.1111/mcn.12526
  6. Mozaffarian D. Diets from around the world--quality not quantity. Lancet. 2011;378(9793):759. doi:10.1016/s0140-6736(11)61362-7
  7. Mozaffarian D. Dietary and policy priorities to reduce the global crises of obesity and diabetes. Nat Food. 2020;1(1):38-50. doi:10.1038/s43016-019-0013-1
  8. Popkin BM, Adair LS, Ng SW. Global nutrition transition and the pandemic of obesity in developing countries. Nutr Rev. 2012;70(1):3-21. doi:10.1111/j.1753-4887.2011.00456.x
  9. Health effects of dietary risks in 195 countries, 1990-2017: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2017. Lancet. 2019;393(10184):1958-1972. doi:10.1016/s0140-6736(19)30041-8
  10. Kraak VI, Rincón-Gallardo Patiño S, Sacks G. An accountability evaluation for the International Food & Beverage Alliance's Global Policy on Marketing Communications to Children to reduce obesity: a narrative review to inform policy. Obes Rev. 2019;20 Suppl 2:90-106. doi:10.1111/obr.12859
  11. Fracassi P, Siekmans K, Baker P. Galvanizing political commitment in the UN Decade of Action for Nutrition: assessing commitment in member-countries of the Scaling Up Nutrition (SUN) Movement. Food Policy. 2020;90:101788. doi:10.1016/j.foodpol.2019.101788
  12. Kraak VI, Swinburn B, Lawrence M, Harrison P. An accountability framework to promote healthy food environments. Public Health Nutr. 2014;17(11):2467-2483. doi:10.1017/s1368980014000093
  13. Zhou M, Rincón-Gallardo Patiño S, Hedrick VE, Kraak VI. An accountability evaluation for the responsible use of celebrity endorsement by the food and beverage industry to promote healthy food environments for young Americans: a narrative review to inform obesity prevention policy. Obes Rev. 2020;21(12):e13094. doi:10.1111/obr.13094
  14. Mozaffarian D, Angell SY, Lang T, Rivera JA. Role of government policy in nutrition-barriers to and opportunities for healthier eating. BMJ. 2018;361:k2426. doi:10.1136/bmj.k2426
  15. Glopan. Improving Diets in an Era of Food Market Transformation: Challenges and Opportunities for Engagement Between the Public and Private Sectors. Policy Brief No. 11. London, UK: Global Panel on Agriculture and Food Systems for Nutrition; 2018.
  16. Roehrich JK, Lewis MA, George G. Are public-private partnerships a healthy option? a systematic literature review. Soc Sci Med. 2014;113:110-119. doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2014.03.037
  17. Levine R, Kuczynski D. Global Nutrition Institutions: Is There an Appetite for Change? Center for Global Development; 2009.
  18. Dukeshire S. Concentration, consolidation, and control: how big business dominates the food system. J Agric Food Syst Community Dev. 2013;4(1):171-173. doi:10.5304/jafscd.2013.041.010
  19. Clapp J, Isakson SR. Risky returns: the implications of financialization in the food system. Dev Change. 2018;49(2):437-460. doi:10.1111/dech.12376
  20. Howard PH, Goodman D, Goodman MK. Concentration and Power in the Food System: Who Controls What We Eat? New York: Bloomsbury Academic; 2016.
  21. Fanzo J, McLaren R. An overview of the ethics of eating and drinking. In: Meiselman HL, ed. Handbook of Eating and Drinking. Cham: Springer; 2020:1095-1115. doi:10.1007/978-3-030-14504-0_82
  22. Bennett J, Boles O, Crossley R. A Recipe for Success: How Food Companies Can Profit from Consumer Health. London: IBLF; 2007.
  23. Lang T, Rayner G, Kaelin E. The Food Industry, Diet Physical Activity and Health: A Review of Reported Commitments and Practice of 25 of the World's Largest Food Companies. London: City University; 2006.
  24. Wansink B, Huckabee M. De-marketing obesity. Calif Manage Rev. 2005;47(4):6-18. doi:10.2307/41166314
  25. Hamann R, Giamporcaro S, Johnston D, Yachkaschi S. The role of business and cross-sector collaboration in addressing the ‘wicked problem’ of food insecurity. Dev South Afr. 2011;28(4):579-594. doi:10.1080/0376835x.2011.605581
  26. Yach D. Food companies and nutrition for better health. Public Health Nutr. 2008;11(2):109-111. doi:10.1017/s1368980007001619
  27. Yach D. The role of business in addressing the long-term implications of the current food crisis. Global Health. 2008;4:12. doi:10.1186/1744-8603-4-12
  28. Yach D, Khan M, Bradley D, Hargrove R, Kehoe S, Mensah G. The role and challenges of the food industry in addressing chronic disease. Global Health. 2010;6:10. doi:10.1186/1744-8603-6-10
  29. Sacks G, Swinburn B, Kraak V, et al. A proposed approach to monitor private-sector policies and practices related to food environments, obesity and non-communicable disease prevention. Obes Rev. 2013;14 Suppl 1:38-48. doi:10.1111/obr.12074
  30. Drewnowski A, Caballero B, Das JK, et al. Novel public-private partnerships to address the double burden of malnutrition. Nutr Rev. 2018;76(11):805-821. doi:10.1093/nutrit/nuy035
  31. Austin JE. Strategic collaboration between nonprofits and businesses. Nonprofit Volunt Sect Q. 2000;29(1 Suppl):69-97. doi:10.1177/0899764000291s004
  32. Kraak VI, Story M. A public health perspective on healthy lifestyles and public-private partnerships for global childhood obesity prevention. J Am Diet Assoc. 2010;110(2):192-200. doi:10.1016/j.jada.2009.10.036
  33. Kraak VI, Harrigan PB, Lawrence M, Harrison PJ, Jackson MA, Swinburn B. Balancing the benefits and risks of public-private partnerships to address the global double burden of malnutrition. Public Health Nutr. 2012;15(3):503-517. doi:10.1017/s1368980011002060
  34. Hoddinott J, Gillespie S, Yosef S. Public-private partnerships and undernutrition: examples and future prospects. World Rev Nutr Diet. 2016;115:233-238. doi:10.1159/000442110
  35. Rowe S, Alexander N, Kretser A, et al. Principles for building public-private partnerships to benefit food safety, nutrition, and health research. Nutr Rev. 2013;71(10):682-691. doi:10.1111/nure.12072
  36. Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD). International Migration Outlook 2016. Paris: OECD Publishing; 2016.
  37. World Health Organization (WHO). Public-Private Partnerships (PPPs). WHO; 2010.
  38. Hoddinott JF, Gillespie S, Yosef S. Public-Private Partnerships and the Reduction of Undernutrition in Developing Countries. International Food Policy Research Institute; 2015.
  39. Bryce J, Coitinho D, Darnton-Hill I, Pelletier D, Pinstrup-Andersen P. Maternal and child undernutrition: effective action at national level. Lancet. 2008;371(9611):510-526. doi:10.1016/s0140-6736(07)61694-8
  40. Gillespie S, Haddad L, Mannar V, Menon P, Nisbett N. The politics of reducing malnutrition: building commitment and accelerating progress. Lancet. 2013;382(9891):552-569. doi:10.1016/s0140-6736(13)60842-9
  41. Clapp J, Scrinis G. Big food, nutritionism, and corporate power. Globalizations. 2017;14(4):578-595. doi:10.1080/14747731.2016.1239806
  42. Johnston LM, Finegood DT. Cross-sector partnerships and public health: challenges and opportunities for addressing obesity and noncommunicable diseases through engagement with the private sector. Annu Rev Public Health. 2015;36:255-271. doi:10.1146/annurev-publhealth-031914-122802
  43. Scrinis G. Reformulation, fortification and functionalization: Big Food corporations’ nutritional engineering and marketing strategies. J Peasant Stud. 2016;43(1):17-37. doi:10.1080/03066150.2015.1101455
  44. Nestle M. Food Politics: How the Food Industry Influences Nutrition and Health. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press; 2013.
  45. Mialon M, Gomes FDS. Public health and the ultra-processed food and drink products industry: corporate political activity of major transnationals in Latin America and the Caribbean. Public Health Nutr. 2019;22(10):1898-1908. doi:10.1017/s1368980019000417
  46. Mialon M, Mialon J. Analysis of corporate political activity strategies of the food industry: evidence from France. Public Health Nutr. 2018;21(18):3407-3421. doi:10.1017/s1368980018001763
  47. Bowen GA. Naturalistic inquiry and the saturation concept: a research note. Qual Res. 2008;8(1):137-152. doi:10.1177/1468794107085301
  48. Shiffman J, Quissell K, Schmitz HP, et al. A framework on the emergence and effectiveness of global health networks. Health Policy Plan. 2016;31 Suppl 1:i3-16. doi:10.1093/heapol/czu046
  49. Wang H, Xiong W, Wu G, Zhu D. Public–private partnership in public administration discipline: a literature review. Public Manag Rev. 2018;20(2):293-316. doi:10.1080/14719037.2017.1313445
  50. Danaei G, Andrews KG, Sudfeld CR, et al. Risk factors for childhood stunting in 137 developing countries: a comparative risk assessment analysis at global, regional, and country levels. PLoS Med. 2016;13(11):e1002164. doi:10.1371/journal.pmed.1002164
  51. Acosta AM, Fanzo J. Fighting Maternal and Child Malnutrition: Analysing the Political and Institutional Determinants of Delivering a National Multisectoral Response in Six Countries. Brighton, UK: Institute for Development Studies; 2012.
  52. Reinhardt K, Fanzo J. Addressing chronic malnutrition through multi-sectoral, sustainable approaches: a review of the causes and consequences. Front Nutr. 2014;1:13. doi:10.3389/fnut.2014.00013
  53. Black RE, Laxminarayan R, Temmerman M, Walker N. Disease Control Priorities, Third Edition (Volume 2): Reproductive, Maternal, Newborn, and Child Health. Washington, DC: World Bank Publications; 2016.
  54. Piwoz E, Sundberg S, Rooke J. Promoting healthy growth: what are the priorities for research and action? Adv Nutr. 2012;3(2):234-241. doi:10.3945/an.111.001164
  55. Ruel MT, Alderman H. Nutrition-sensitive interventions and programmes: how can they help to accelerate progress in improving maternal and child nutrition? Lancet. 2013;382(9891):536-551. doi:10.1016/s0140-6736(13)60843-0
  56. Institute of Medicine, Food and Nutrition Board & Committee on an Evidence Framework for Obesity Prevention Decision Making. Bridging the Evidence Gap in Obesity Prevention: A Framework to Inform Decision Making. National Academies Press; 2010.
  57. Pérez-Escamilla R, Lutter CK, Rabadan-Diehl C, et al. Prevention of childhood obesity and food policies in Latin America: from research to practice. Obes Rev. 2017;18 Suppl 2:28-38. doi:10.1111/obr.12574
  58. Reilly JJ, Martin A, Hughes AR. Early-life obesity prevention: critique of intervention trials during the first one thousand days. Curr Obes Rep. 2017;6(2):127-133. doi:10.1007/s13679-017-0255-x
  59. Sacks G, Kwon J, Ananthapavan J. The application of an evidence framework for obesity prevention at the population-level. Curr Obes Rep. 2020;9(2):150-158. doi:10.1007/s13679-020-00376-z
  60. Richardson AS, Chen C, Sturm R, et al. Obesity prevention interventions and implications for energy balance in the United States and Mexico: a systematic review of the evidence and meta-analysis. Obesity (Silver Spring). 2019;27(9):1390-1403. doi:10.1002/oby.22540
  61. Nugent R, Levin C, Grafton D, Fanzo J, Remans R, Anderson CL. Indicators for nutrition-friendly and sustainable food systems. In: Global Nutrition Report 2015: Actions and Accountability to Advance Nutrition and Sustainable Development. International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI); 2015.
  62. Haddad LJ, Achadi E, Bendech MA, et al. Global Nutrition Report 2014: Actions and Accountability to Accelerate the World's Progress on Nutrition. Washington, DC: International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI). doi:10.2499/9780896295643
  63. International Food Policy Research Institute. Global Nutrition Report 2015: Actions and Accountability to Advance Nutrition and Sustainable Development. International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI); 2015.
  64. Hurlimann T, Peña-Rosas JP, Saxena A, Zamora G, Godard B. Ethical issues in the development and implementation of nutrition-related public health policies and interventions: A scoping review. PLoS One. 2017;12(10):e0186897. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0186897
  65. Jerling J, Pelletier D, Fanzo J, Covic N. Supporting multisectoral action: capacity and nutrition leadership challenges facing Africa. In: Covic N, Hendriks SL, eds. Achieving a Nutrition Revolution for Africa: The Road to Healthier Diets and Optimal Nutrition. Washington, DC: International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI); 2016:147-169.
  66. 66. White M, Barquera S, Buenrostro N.        The double burden of malnutrition: a Latin American perspective. Sight and Life. 2018;32(2):24-28.
  67. Reich MR, Balarajan Y. Political Economy Analysis for Food and Nutrition Security. Washington, DC: World Bank; 2012.
  68. Balarajan Y, Reich MR. Political economy challenges in nutrition. Global Health. 2016;12(1):70. doi:10.1186/s12992-016-0204-6
  69. Darnton-Hill I, Samman S. Challenges and opportunities in scaling-up nutrition in healthcare. Healthcare (Basel). 2015;3(1):3-19. doi:10.3390/healthcare3010003
  70. Garrett JL, Natalicchio M. Working Multisectorally in Nutrition: Principles, Practices, and Case Studies. International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI); 2010.
  71. Palmer AC, West KP. A quarter of a century of progress to prevent vitamin A deficiency through supplementation. Food Rev Int. 2010;26(3):270-301. doi:10.1080/87559129.2010.484116
  72. Clark LF. Are innovative ready to use therapeutic foods more effective, accessible and cost-efficient than conventional formulations? a review. Outlook Agric. 2020;49(4):267-277. doi:10.1177/0030727020932184
  73. Kumar D, Raghav P, Bhardwaj P, Kumar N. Harnessing the potential of private sector in nutrition: a prerequisite for meeting goal 2 of Sustainable Development Goals (SDG) 2030. Indian J Community Fam Med. 2017;3(2):4. doi:10.4103/2395-2113.251890
  74. Rowe S, Alexander N. Public-private partnerships in nutrition: meeting the public-private communication challenge. Nutr Today. 2014;49(2):83-86. doi:10.1097/nt.0000000000000023
  75. Gillespie S, Poole N, van den Bold M, Bhavani RV, Dangour AD, Shetty P. Leveraging agriculture for nutrition in South Asia: what do we know, and what have we learned? Food Policy. 2019;82:3-12. doi:10.1016/j.foodpol.2018.10.012
  76. Hermans F, Geerling-Eiff F, Potters J, Klerkx L. Public-private partnerships as systemic agricultural innovation policy instruments–Assessing their contribution to innovation system function dynamics. NJAS Wageningen J Life Sci. 2019;88:76-95. doi:10.1016/j.njas.2018.10.001
  77. Knai C, Petticrew M, Durand MA, et al. Has a public–private partnership resulted in action on healthier diets in England? an analysis of the Public Health Responsibility Deal food pledges. Food Policy. 2015;54:1-10. doi:10.1016/j.foodpol.2015.04.002
  78. Rampa F, Karaki K. Ending Hunger and Malnutrition: The Role of Public-Private Partnerships. Rome: Save the Children Italy; 2017.
  79. van Liere MJ, Tarlton D, Menon R, Yellamanda M, Reerink I. Harnessing private sector expertise to improve complementary feeding within a regulatory framework: where is the evidence? Matern Child Nutr. 2017;13 Suppl 2. doi:10.1111/mcn.12429
  80. Pelletier D, Gervais S, Hafeez-Ur-Rehman H, Sanou D, Tumwine J. Boundary-spanning actors in complex adaptive governance systems: the case of multisectoral nutrition. Int J Health Plann Manage. 2018;33(1):e293-e319. doi:10.1002/hpm.2468
  81. Lamstein S, Pomeroy-Stevens A, Webb P, Kennedy E. Optimizing the multisectoral nutrition policy cycle: a systems perspective. Food Nutr Bull. 2016;37(4 Suppl):S107-S114. doi:10.1177/0379572116675994
  82. De Costa A, Johansson E, Diwan VK. Barriers of mistrust: public and private health sectors' perceptions of each other in Madhya Pradesh, India. Qual Health Res. 2008;18(6):756-766. doi:10.1177/1049732308318504
  83. Menon P, Stoltzfus RJ. Building convergence in science, programs, and policy actions on child undernutrition: symposium rationale and overview. Adv Nutr. 2012;3(2):224-226. doi:10.3945/an.111.001115
  84. Lake AA. Neighbourhood food environments: food choice, foodscapes and planning for health. Proc Nutr Soc. 2018;77(3):239-246. doi:10.1017/s0029665118000022
  85. Brownell KD, Warner KE. The perils of ignoring history: Big Tobacco played dirty and millions died. How similar is Big Food? Milbank Q. 2009;87(1):259-294. doi:10.1111/j.1468-0009.2009.00555.x
  86. Kovic Y, Noel JK, Ungemack JA, Burleson JA. The impact of junk food marketing regulations on food sales: an ecological study. Obes Rev. 2018;19(6):761-769. doi:10.1111/obr.12678
  87. Taillie LS, Busey E, Stoltze FM, Dillman Carpentier FR. Governmental policies to reduce unhealthy food marketing to children. Nutr Rev. 2019;77(11):787-816. doi:10.1093/nutrit/nuz021
  88. Huang TT, Yaroch AL. A public-private partnership model for obesity prevention. Prev Chronic Dis. 2009;6(3):A110.
  89. Salam RA, Das JK, Ahmed W, Irfan O, Sheikh SS, Bhutta ZA. Effects of preventive nutrition interventions among adolescents on health and nutritional status in low-and middle-income countries: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Nutrients. 2019;12(1). doi:10.3390/nu12010049
  90. Tsang BL, Moreno R, Dabestani N, Pachón H, Spohrer R, Milani P. Public and private sector dynamics in scaling up rice fortification: the Colombian experience and its lessons. Food Nutr Bull. 2016;37(3):317-328. doi:10.1177/0379572116646897
  91. Mehansho H. Eradication of iron deficiency anemia through food fortification: the role of the private sector. J Nutr. 2002;132(4 Suppl):831S-833S. doi:10.1093/jn/132.4.831S
  92. Garrett GS, Manus C, Bleuthner A. Chapter 11 - The importance of public–private collaboration in food fortification programs. In: Mannar MGV, Hurrell RF, eds. Food Fortification in a Globalized World. Academic Press; 2018:113-120. doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-802861-2.00011-0
  93. Fuchs D, Kalfagianni A, Arentsen M. Retail power, private standards, and sustainability in the global food system. In:  Corporate Power in Global Agrifood Governance. MIT Press; 2009:29-59.
  94. Sodano V. A power-based approach to the analysis of the food system. In: Bijman J, Omta SWF, Trienekens JH, Wijnands JHM, Wubben EFM, eds. International Agri-Food Chains and Networks. Wageningen Academic Publishers; 2006:199-215.
  95. Stevenson MA. The relevance of the public-private partnership paradigm to the prevention of diet-associated non-communicable diseases in wealthy countries. Glob Public Health. 2015;10(8):930-946. doi:10.1080/17441692.2015.1012528
  96. Pelto GH, Backstrand JR. Interrelationships between power-related and belief-related factors determine nutrition in populations. J Nutr. 2003;133(1):297S-300S. doi:10.1093/jn/133.1.297S
  97. Chen S. Multinational corporate power, influence and responsibility in global supply chains. J Bus Ethics. 2018;148(2):365-374. doi:10.1007/s10551-016-3033-x
  98. Colchero MA, Rivera-Dommarco J, Popkin BM, Ng SW. In Mexico, evidence of sustained consumer response two years after implementing a sugar-sweetened beverage tax. Health Aff (Millwood). 2017;36(3):564-571. doi:10.1377/hlthaff.2016.1231
  99. Lerner IM. Can New York swallow a soda tax? N Y State Dent J. 2010;76(2):10-11.
  100. Smed S, Scarborough P, Rayner M, Jensen JD. The effects of the Danish saturated fat tax on food and nutrient intake and modelled health outcomes: an econometric and comparative risk assessment evaluation. Eur J Clin Nutr. 2016;70(6):681-686. doi:10.1038/ejcn.2016.6
  101. Baker P, Friel S. Food systems transformations, ultra-processed food markets and the nutrition transition in Asia. Global Health. 2016;12(1):80. doi:10.1186/s12992-016-0223-3
  102. Herforth A, Arimond M, Álvarez-Sánchez C, Coates J, Christianson K, Muehlhoff E. A global review of food-based dietary guidelines. Adv Nutr. 2019;10(4):590-605. doi:10.1093/advances/nmy130
  103. Herforth A, Ahmed S. The food environment, its effects on dietary consumption, and potential for measurement within agriculture-nutrition interventions. Food Security. 2015;7(3):505-520. doi:10.1007/s12571-015-0455-8
  104. Swinburn B, Kraak V, Rutter H, et al. Strengthening of accountability systems to create healthy food environments and reduce global obesity. Lancet. 2015;385(9986):2534-2545. doi:10.1016/s0140-6736(14)61747-5
  105. Brownell KD. Thinking forward: the quicksand of appeasing the food industry. PLoS Med. 2012;9(7):e1001254. doi:10.1371/journal.pmed.1001254
  106. Freedhoff Y, Hébert PC. Partnerships between health organizations and the food industry risk derailing public health nutrition. CMAJ. 2011;183(3):291-292. doi:10.1503/cmaj.110085
  107. Haddad L. Reward food companies for improving nutrition. Nature. 2018;556(7699):19-22. doi:10.1038/d41586-018-03918-7
  108. Mason F, Greer H. Don’t Push It: Why the Formula Milk Industry Must Clean Up Its Act. Save the Children; 2013.
  109. Ludwig DS, Nestle M. Can the food industry play a constructive role in the obesity epidemic? JAMA. 2008;300(15):1808-1811. doi:10.1001/jama.300.15.1808
  110. O'Dowd A. Spending on junk food advertising is nearly 30 times what government spends on promoting healthy eating. BMJ. 2017;359:j4677. doi:10.1136/bmj.j4677
  111. Abbasi J. Junk food ads reach children despite food industry self-regulation. JAMA. 2017;317(23):2359-2361. doi:10.1001/jama.2017.4653
  112. 2020 Global Nutrition Report - Global Nutrition Report. Global Nutrition Report https://globalnutritionreport.org/reports/2020-global-nutrition-report/.  Published 2020.
  113. De Schutter O. The political economy approach to food systems reform. In: Harris J, Anderson M, Clément C, Nisbett N, eds. The Political Economy of Food. Brighton: IDS; 2019.
  114. Nwuneli N, Robinson E, Humphrey J, Henson S. The Role of Businesses in Providing Nutrient-Rich Foods for the Poor: Two Case Studies in Nigeria, IDS Evidence Report 64. Brighton: IDS; 2014.
  115. Temu A, Waized B, Ndyetabula D, Robinson E, Humphrey J, Henson S. Mapping Value Chains for Nutrient-Dense Foods in Tanzania, IDS Evidence Report 76. Brighton: IDS; 2014.
  116. Baregheh A, Rowley J, Sambrook S, Davies D. Food sector SMEs and innovation types. Br Food J. 2012;114(11):1640-1653. doi:10.1108/00070701211273126
  117. Reardon T, Echeverria R, Berdegué J, et al. Rapid transformation of food systems in developing regions: highlighting the role of agricultural research & innovations. Agric Syst. 2019;172:47-59. doi:10.1016/j.agsy.2018.01.022
  118. Ortega DL, Tschirley DL. Demand for food safety in emerging and developing countries: a research agenda for Asia and sub-Saharan Africa. J Agribus Dev Emerg Econ. 2017;7(1):21-34. doi:10.1108/jadee-12-2014-0045
  119. Eggersdorfer M, Bird JK. How to achieve transparency in public-private partnerships engaged in hunger and malnutrition reduction. World Rev Nutr Diet. 2016;115:224-232. doi:10.1159/000442109
  120. DiMartino C, Scott J. Private sector contracting and democratic accountability. Educ Policy. 2013;27(2):307-333. doi:10.1177/0895904812465117
  121. HLPE. Nutrition and Food Systems: A report by the High Level Panel of Experts on Food Security and Nutrition of the Committee on World Food Security. http://www.fao.org/fileadmin/user_upload/hlpe/hlpe_documents/HLPE_Reports/HLPE-Report-12_EN.pdf.  Published 2017.
  122. Stevenson M. PATH: pioneering innovation for global health at the public–private interface. Third World Q. 2017;38(8):1873-1893. doi:10.1080/01436597.2016.1233491
  123. Ponnusamy K, Das MD, Bonny BP, Mishra S. PPP and gender mainstreaming in agriculture: lessons from field studies. Agric Econ Res Rev. 2014;27:147-155. doi:10.5958/0974-0279.2014.00017.2
  124. Ferroni M, Castle P. Public-private partnerships and sustainable agricultural development. Sustainability. 2011;3(7):1064-1073. doi:10.3390/su3071064
  125. Thorpe J. Procedural justice in value chains through public–private partnerships. World Dev. 2018;103:162-175. doi:10.1016/j.worlddev.2017.10.004
  126. Ruckert A, Labonté R. Public–private partnerships (PPPs) in global health: the good, the bad and the ugly. Third World Q. 2014;35(9):1598-1614. doi:10.1080/01436597.2014.970870
  127. Ponnusamy K. Impact of public private partnership in agriculture: a review. Indian J Agric Sci. 2013;83(8):803-808.
  128. Spielman DJ, Hartwich F, Grebmer K. Public–private partnerships and developing-country agriculture: evidence from the international agricultural research system. Public Adm Dev. 2010;30(4):261-276. doi:10.1002/pad.574
  129. Lawther WC, Martin LL. Private Financing of Public Transportation Infrastructure: Utilizing Public-Private Partnerships. Lexington Books; 2015.
  130. Hawkes C, Buse K. Public health sector and food industry interaction: it's time to clarify the term 'partnership' and be honest about underlying interests. Eur J Public Health. 2011;21(4):400-401. doi:10.1093/eurpub/ckr077
International Journal of Health Policy and Management

Articles in Press, Accepted Manuscript
Available Online from 16 January 2021

Files

Share

How to cite

Statistics